Research progress on data-driven evaluation methods for recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries

ZHAO Yuanhao; ZONG Yuhang; SUN Zhi; CAO Hongbin; YAN Wenyi; ZHAO He

doi:10.13205/j.hjgc.202509019

Volume 43 Issue 9

Sep. 2025

Turn off MathJax

Article Contents

Article Navigation > ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING > 2025 > 43(9): 183-197

ZHAO Yuanhao, ZONG Yuhang, SUN Zhi, CAO Hongbin, YAN Wenyi, ZHAO He. Research progress on data-driven evaluation methods for recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING , 2025, 43(9): 183-197. doi: 10.13205/j.hjgc.202509019

Citation:

ZHAO Yuanhao, ZONG Yuhang, SUN Zhi, CAO Hongbin, YAN Wenyi, ZHAO He. Research progress on data-driven evaluation methods for recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING , 2025, 43(9): 183-197. doi: 10.13205/j.hjgc.202509019

Citation:

ZHAO Yuanhao, ZONG Yuhang, SUN Zhi, CAO Hongbin, YAN Wenyi, ZHAO He. Research progress on data-driven evaluation methods for recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING , 2025, 43(9): 183-197. doi: 10.13205/j.hjgc.202509019

PDF( 2328 KB)

Research progress on data-driven evaluation methods for recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries

doi: 10.13205/j.hjgc.202509019

ZHAO Yuanhao^1,2,
ZONG Yuhang^1,4,
SUN Zhi^1,3,
CAO Hongbin^1,3,
YAN Wenyi^{1,3
,
,},
ZHAO He^1,3

1. Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China;
2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China;
3. National Basic Public Science Data Center, Beijing 100190, China;
4. School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China

Received Date: 2024-10-17
Available Online: 2025-11-05
Publish Date: 2025-09-01

Abstract

Abstract

With the rapid advancement of electric vehicles and energy storage systems， research on the recycling processes of spent lithium-ion batteries has become a critical focus for both academia and industry. Proper management of such processes is essential to address environmental challenges. This paper presents a comprehensive review of existing evaluation methods for the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries， including life cycle assessment， techno-economic assessment， criticality assessment， material flow analysis， input-output analysis， best available technique evaluation， and the coupling of multiple methods. It evaluates the applicability， strengths， and limitations of each method while highlighting their differences in addressing battery chemistries， indicator selection， and model construction. Life cycle assessment is identified as the most widely applied and representative method due to its well-established evaluation framework and capacity to systematically assess environmental impacts. However， single-method approaches are insufficient to capture the intricate interdependencies among environmental， economic， and resource-related factors inherent in the recycling processes. Consequently， the integration of multiple evaluation methods has emerged as a significant research trend， allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of these multifaceted processes. Nevertheless， further advancements are required to enhance the coverage of multidimensional factors such as carbon emissions， resource utilization， environmental impacts， and economic benefits. The emergence of data-driven approaches， which incorporate machine learning techniques and big data analytics， offers new opportunities for addressing uncertainties， optimizing data processing， and improving model accuracy in the evaluation of recycling processes. This paper emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary methodologies and robust data frameworks to guide the sustainable development of the lithium-ion battery recycling industry. These findings can provide a scientific basis for optimizing recycling technologies， informing policy-making， and supporting the global transition to a circular economy.
- spent lithium-ion batteries,
- recycling processes,
- life cycle assessment,
- techno-economic assessment,
- criticality assessment,
- material flow analysis,
- multi-objective optimization

FullText(HTML)

References(69)

References

[1]	中华人民共和国中央人民政府. 中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展第十四个五年规划和二〇三五年远景目标的建议.[EB/OL].[ 2020-11-03]. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2020-11/03/content_5556991.htm People's Republic of China Central People's Government. Suggestions of the cpc central committee on formulating the 14th five-year plan for national economic and social development and the long-range objectives for 2035.[EB/OL].[ 2020-11-03]. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2020-11/03/content_5556991.htm
[2]	BISWAL B K，ZHANG B，TRAN P T M，et al. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries for a sustainable future:recent advancements[J]. Chemical Society Reviews，2024，53:5552-5592.
[3]	SUN J，LI J G，ZHOU T，et al. Toxicity，a serious concern of thermal runaway from commercial Li-ion battery[J]. Nano Energy，2016，27:313-319.
[4]	NATARAJAN S，ARAVINDAN V. Burgeoning prospects of spent lithium-ion batteries in multifarious applications[J]. Advanced Energy Materials，2018，8（33）:1802303.
[5]	中国工业节能与清洁生产协会. 中国新能源电池回收利用产业发展报告（2022）[M]. 北京:机械工业出版社，2022. China Industrial Energy Conservation and Clean Production Association. China new energy battery recycling industry development report 2022[M]. Beijing:Mechanical Industry Press，2022.
[6]	ZENG J，LIU S. Forecasting the sustainable classified recycling of used lithium batteries by gray graphical evaluation and review technique[J]. Renewable Energy，2023，202:602-612.
[7]	LEI S，SUN W，YANG Y. Comprehensive technology for recycling and regenerating materials from spent lithium iron phosphate battery[J]. Environmental Science & Technology，2024，58（8）:3609-3628.
[8]	CHEN W S，HO H J. Recovery of valuable metals from lithium-ion batteries NMC cathode waste materials by hydrometallurgical methods[J]. Metals，2018，8（5）:321.
[9]	WANG H，HUO J D，QU G R，et al. Research progress on the resource recovery technology of spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials[J]. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress，2023，42（5）:2702-2716. 王昊，霍进达，曲国瑞，等. 退役锂电池正极材料资源化回收技术研究进展[J]. 化工进展，2023，42（5）:2702-2716.
[10]	TANG D，WANG J X，CHEN W，et al. Current status and prospects of direct recycling of spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials[J]. Inorganic Salt Industry，2023，55（1）:15-25. 唐迪，王俊雄，陈稳，等. 退役锂离子电池正极材料直接回收的研究现状和展望[J]. 无机盐工业，2023，55（1）:15-25.
[11]	LV W，WANG Z，CAO H，et al. A critical review and analysis on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering，2018，6（2）:1504-1521.
[12]	LI P，LUO S，ZHANG L，et al. Progress，challenges，and prospects of spent lithium-ion batteries recycling:a review[J]. Journal of Energy Chemistry，2024，89:144-171.
[13]	FORTE F，PIETRANTONIO M，PUCCIARMATI S，et al. Lithium iron phosphate batteries recycling:An assessment of current status[J]. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology，2021，51（19）:2232-2259.
[14]	YANG C，ZHANG J，LIANG G，et al. An advanced strategy of“metallurgy before sorting” for recycling spent entire ternary lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，361:132268.
[15]	QIAO D，WANG G，GAO T，et al. Potential impact of the end-of-life batteries recycling of electric vehicles on lithium demand in China:2010–2050[J]. Science of the Total Environment，2021，764:142835.
[16]	GAO W F，CUI T A，ZHAO X N，et al. Research progress on life cycle carbon footprint assessment of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress，2024，43（12）:6983-6994. 高文芳，崔天傲，赵新宁，等. 锂离子电池全生命周期碳足迹评价研究进展[J]. 化工进展，2024，43（12）:6983-6994.
[17]	LIU W，LIU H，LIU W，et al. Life cycle assessment of power batteries used in electric bicycles in China[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2021，139:110596.
[18]	BLÖMEKE S，SCHELLER C，CERDAS F，et al. Material and energy flow analysis for environmental and economic impact assessment of industrial recycling routes for lithium-ion traction batteries[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，377:134344.
[19]	MESHALKIN V P，KULOV N N，GUSEVA T V，et al. Best available techniques and green chemical technology:possibilities for convergence of concepts[J]. Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering，2022，56（6）:964-970.
[20]	WANG P P，HUANG G H，LI Y P，et al. An ecological input-output CGE model for unveiling CO₂ emission metabolism under China's dual carbon goals[J]. Applied Energy，2024，365:123277.
[21]	LI L，DABABNEH F，ZHAO J. Cost-effective supply chain for electric vehicle battery remanufacturing[J]. Applied energy，2018，226:277-286.
[22]	LIU J，SHI H，HU X，et al. Critical strategies for recycling process of graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries:a review[J]. Science of the Total Environment，2022，816:151621.
[23]	KALLITSIS E，KORRE A，KELSALL G H. Life cycle assessment of recycling options for automotive Li-ion battery packs[J]. Journal of cleaner production，2022，371:133636.
[24]	PRYSHLAKIVSKY J，SEARCY C. Fifteen years of ISO 14040:a review[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2013，57:115-123.
[25]	XUE M，XU Z. Application of life cycle assessment on electronic waste management:a review[J]. Environmental Management，2017，59:693-707.
[26]	ALIZADEH S，REZAZADEH A，AVAMI A. A cutting-edge tool for sustainable environmental management through life cycle assessment[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2024，192:114194.
[27]	YOO E，LEE U，KELLY J C，et al. Life-cycle analysis of battery metal recycling with lithium recovery from a spent lithium-ion battery[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2023，196:107040.
[28]	FAHIMI A，DUCOLI S，FEDERICI S，et al. Evaluation of the sustainability of technologies to recycle spent lithium-ion batteries，based on embodied energy and carbon footprint[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，338:130493.
[29]	STEWARD D，MAYYAS A，MANN M. Economics and challenges of Li-ion battery recycling from end-of-life vehicles[J]. Procedia Manufacturing，2019，33:272-279.
[30]	SUN S，CHEN J，HE W，et al. Management status of waste lithium-ion batteries in China and a complete closed-circuit recycling process[J]. Science of The Total Environment，2021，776:145913.
[31]	SHAN W，ZI Y，CHEN H，et al. Coupling redox flow desalination with lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Water Research，2024，252:121205.
[32]	YANG Y，OKONKWO E G，HUANG G，et al. On the sustainability of lithium ion battery industry–a review and perspective[J]. Energy Storage Materials，2021，36:186-212.
[33]	GRAEDEL T E，HARPER E M，NASSAR N T，et al. Criticality of metals and metalloids[J]. PNAS，2015，112:4257-4262.
[34]	SCHRIJVERS D，HOOL A，BLENGINI G A，et al. A review of methods and data to determine raw material criticality[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2020，155:104617-110634.
[35]	SONG J，YAN W，CAO H，et al. Material flow analysis on critical raw materials of lithium-ion batteries in China[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2019，215:570-581.
[36]	YAN W，CAO H，ZHANG Y，et al. Rethinking Chinese supply resilience of critical metals in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2020，256:120719.
[37]	LU B，LIU J，YANG J. Substance flow analysis of lithium for sustainable management in mainland China:2007—2014[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2017，119:109-116.
[38]	ERAKCA M，BAUMANN M，BAUER W，et al. Energy flow analysis of laboratory scale lithium-ion battery cell production[J]. IScience，2021，24（5）:102437.
[39]	ZHANG H，LIU G，LI J，et al. Modeling the impact of nickel recycling from batteries on nickel demand during vehicle electrification in China from 2010 to 2050[J]. Science of the Total Environment，2023，859:159964.
[40]	ZONG Y，YAO P，ZHANG X，et al. Material flow analysis on the critical resources from spent power lithium-ion batteries under the framework of China's recycling policies[J]. Waste Management，2023，171:463-472.
[41]	LV W，WANG Z，ZHENG X，et al. Selective recovery of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries by coupling advanced oxidation processes and chemical leaching processes[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering，2020，8（13）:5165-5174.
[42]	VOJÁČEK O，BRABEC J，MACHÁČ J. Costs of achieving emission limits in coal-burning power plants under the recent best available techniques regulation amendment:evidence from national microeconomic data[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，352:131600.
[43]	DIRECTIVE C. Concerning integrated pollution prevention and control[M]. London:Official Journal of the European Communities，1996.
[44]	WEN Z，MENG F，DI J，et al. Technological approaches and policy analysis of integrated water pollution prevention and control for the coal-to-methanol industry based on best available technology[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2016，113:231-240.
[45]	COBAS-Flores E，HENDRICKSON C T，LAVE L B，et al. Life cycle analysis of batteries using economic input-output analysis[C]// Proceedings of the 1996 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment，IEEE，1996.
[46]	PAN X，KRAINES S. Environmental input-output models for life-cycle analysis[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics，2001，20:61-72.
[47]	SANFÉLIX J，De la RÚA C，SCHMIDT J H，et al. Environmental and economic performance of an li-ion battery pack:a multiregional input-output approach[J]. Energies，2016，9（8）:584.
[48]	LENZEN M，MORAN D，KANEMOTO K，et al. Building Eora:a global multi-region input–output database at high country and sector resolution[J]. Economic Systems Research，2013，25（1）:20-49.
[49]	WOOD R，STADLER K，BULAVSKAYA T，et al. Global sustainability accounting—developing EXIOBASE for multi-regional footprint analysis[J]. Sustainability，2014，7（1）:138-163.
[50]	TIMMER M P，DIETZENBACHER E，LOS B，et al. An illustrated user guide to the world input–output database:the case of global automotive production[J]. Review of International Economics，2015，23（3）:575-605.
[51]	Wilensky U. An introduction to agent-based modeling:modeling natural，social，and engineered complex systems with netlogo[M]. The MIT Press，2015.
[52]	NOVIZAYANTI D，PRASETIO E A，SIALLAGAN M，et al. Agent-based modeling framework for electric vehicle adoption transition in Indonesia[J]. World Electric Vehicle Journal，2021，12（2）:73.
[53]	WASESA M，HIDAYAT T，ANDARIESTA D T，et al. Economic and environmental assessments of an integrated lithium-ion battery waste recycling supply chain:A hybrid simulation approach[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，379:134625.
[54]	BOUTER A，GUICHET X. The greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries:a statistical review of life cycle assessment studies[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2022，344:130994.
[55]	TADAROS M，MIGDALAS A，SAMUELSSON B，et al. Location of facilities and network design for reverse logistics of lithium-ion batteries in Sweden[J]. Operational Research，2022:1-21.
[56]	CUI X K，WANG Q Z，LIU Q P. A data-driven model for prediction of lithium battery state of health[J]. Complex Systems and Complexity Science，2024，21（3）:154-159. 崔孝凯，王庆芝，刘其朋. 基于数据驱动的锂电池健康状态预测[J]. 复杂系统与复杂性科学，2024，21（3）:154-159.
[57]	NIU B，WANG X，XU Z. Application of machine learning to guide efficient metal leaching from spent lithium-ion batteries and comprehensively reveal the process parameter influences[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2023，410:137188.
[58]	GARG A，YUN L，GAO L，et al. Development of recycling strategy for large stacked systems:experimental and machine learning approach to form reuse battery packs for secondary applications[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production，2020，275:124152.
[59]	GREENBANK S，HOWEY D. Automated feature extraction and selection for data-driven models of rapid battery capacity fade and end of life[J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics，2021，18（5）:2965-2973.
[60]	WANG Y，YU Y，HUANG K，et al. From the perspective of battery production:energy–environment–economy（3E）analysis of lithium-ion batteries in China[J]. Sustainability，2019，11（24）:6941.
[61]	YANG Jie，GU Fu，GUO Jianfeng. Environmental feasibility of secondary use of electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries in communication base stations[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2020，156:104713.
[62]	SCHENKER V，OBERSCHELP C，PFISTER S. Regionalized life cycle assessment of present and future lithium production for Li-ion batteries[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2022，187:106611.
[63]	TAO Y，WANG Z，WU B，et al. Environmental life cycle assessment of recycling technologies for ternary lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of cleaner production，2023，389:136008.
[64]	LIU K，WANG M，ZHANG Q，et al. A perspective on the recovery mechanisms of spent lithium iron phosphate cathode materials in different oxidation environments[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials，2023，445:130502.
[65]	JIANG T T，WANG H F，JIN Q. Comparison of three typical lithium-ion batteries for pure electric vehicles from the perspective of life cycle assessment[J]. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy，2024，26（2）:331-350.
[66]	ANWANI S，METHEKAR R，RAMADESIGAN V. Life cycle assessment and economic analysis of acidic leaching and baking routes for the production of cobalt oxalate from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management，2020，22（6）:2092-2106.
[67]	XIAO J，NIU B，LU J，et al. Perspective on recycling technologies for critical metals from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal，2024，496:154338.
[68]	Tao S，Liu H，Sun C，et al. Collaborative and privacy-preserving retired battery sorting for profitable direct recycling via federated machine learning[J]. Nature Communications，2023，14（1）:8032.
[69]	MENG K，XU G，PENG X，et al. Intelligent disassembly of electric-vehicle batteries:a forward-looking overview[J]. Resources，Conservation and Recycling，2022，182:106207.